Study On The Life Of Hijras In India Sociology Essay

Study On The Life Of Hijras In India Sociology Essay This dissertation explores the lives of eunuchs, the third gender, in contemporary India. It aims to bring out the several misconceptions harboured about this community and suggest measures to improve their living conditions. One day our descendants will think it incredible that we paid so much attention to things like the amount of melanin in our skin or the shape of our eyes or our gender instead of the unique identities of each of us as complex human beings. Anonymous Over the years, the hijra or eunuch community has occupied an extremely marginalized position in Indian society. By and large, their presence has provoked mixed feelings of fear, awe and contempt from the general public. Over the last two decades, the community has captured the western scholarly imagination as an idyllic case in the transnational system of alternative gender sexuality. When it comes to these type of analyses, as Rosalind Morris states, the hijra becomes either, an interstitial gender occupying a liminal pace between male and female or a drag queen who is a hero(ine) in a global sexual resistance Yet there exists a very different reality from that suggested by these theorists a reality based on rejection by family, cultural and societal isolation as well as neglect. Their identification as a uniquely positioned third sex becomes a lot more complicated when the hijra lifestyle is discussed with respect to this contemporary reality, instead of historical or mythical representation. The community has been subjected to vicious abuse or a lack of empathy, on a mental or physical level from different sections of society at various levels. These sections include the lay person, law enforcers and worse, their own biological parents and relatives. Lying at stake is the fundamental human right to be different, the right to recognition and choice of different pathways of sexuality, in other words a right to sexual orientation, a right to immunity from the oppressive and repressive derogatory labelling of despised sexuality. Expressed in the form of narratives that were penned down after listening to a number of Hijras, this piece of work, at a very primary level, captures the lives of a few of the people from the community that we all choose to shun, despise or simply not bother about. It brings out and analyzes the many stereotypes and superstitions associated with this community. The testimonials of the Hijras and Kothis with whom I interacted bring alive the unimaginable and gruesome violence they are subjected to, especially, at the hands of the police. This dissertation also aims to bring out and deride the atrocities the hijras are subjected to, the injustice that has been meted out to them in various spheres of life and suggest developmental measures in this regard. Above all, this piece of work is dedicated towards creating a little more sensitivity and empathy for this community, that so far does not enjoy most of the basic human rights that we, the normal people, take for granted. THE HIJRAS: WHO WE ARE The hijras are generally considered to constitute a third gender, neither male nor female. Even in their own narratives, the hijras view themselves not simply as neither man nor woman, as the title of Nandas(1990) ethnography on the hijras suggests, but also as deficient in terms of masculinity and not completely feminine. Instead of taking a place outside the female-male binary, the Hijras have created a life somewhere in between, one that is restricted by deep-rooted cultural constructions of femininity and masculinity. Largely, the community expresses a feminine gender identity, coming closest experientially to what would be referred to in the West as a transsexual, that is, a female trapped in a male body. It is a socio-religious construct marked by extreme gender nonconformity in the sense that there is no correlation between their anatomical sex and gender identity. In India, there is a widespread belief that hijras often pick up or kidnap infants and castrate them in order to increase the population of the community, but there are no statistics or factual evidences to support the same. Most hijras in India live in groups that are organised into seven houses, known as gharanas, Mumbai, Pune and Hyderabad being the more populous centres. Each house is headed by a nayak. This persons job is to appoint spiritual leaders or gurus who train their chelas ( wards who are lower in rank) in badhai- the well known singing, dancing and blessing ritual. The gurus responsibility is furthered to act as a protector of his chelas, both from within as well as outside the community. Any quarrels amongst hijras are decided within the community by the nayak and senior gurus acting as law makers, the punishment ranging from imposing fines and expulsion from the community, if the offences were of a higher degree. According to popular religious practice, they are believed to be endowed with special powers to confer fertility on newlyweds or new born children. According to tradition, they are expected to sing and dance at weddings as well as childbirth functions, and in lieu of their services they are rewarded with money, clothes, jewellery etc. Singing and dancing has a respectable status in the Hijra community; it gives them a sense of power as it reaffirms the fact that the people who asked them to sing and dance during the childbirth or any other functions, believe in their powers. The custom of hijras being called for dancing in weddings and childbirth is more prominent in the north, and therefore, sadly, the number of Hijras in the south who take to prostitution to earn money are much more than those in the northern parts of the country. One of the more common Hijra complaints in the form of public appeals to the government is the non availability of decent jobs for them, hence they do not have any choice but to take to prostitution to earn their livelihood. The Kothis Kothis like hijras are transgender persons who identify themselves with the feminine gender. The kep difference lies in the fact that hijras usually settle into a fixed gender role after the castration process, whereas kothis display an ambiguous dual gender identity that swings between the masculine role of the husband demanded in the marriage relationship and the feminine role in the same-sex relationship outside. In simpler words, a kothi can be described as a male homosexual who takes a feminine role in sex with other men. They, largely and essentially belong to a non-English speaking lower middle-class background and feel marginalized in all contexts, whether in terms of economic status, language, education, or sexuality. Due to the pressure extended by family as well as society to conform to normal norms like marriage and reproducing, many kothis marry and raise families , but continue to have same-sex relationships outside, often under hidden and covert circumstances. Economic problems within families as well as non acceptance of this abnormal member within the family drives many other kothis to sex work. Sadly, even when they do make an effort to seek employment in more decent professions, both hijras and kothis are very often subject to sexual harassment at the workplace which makes it impossible for them to continue working there. There exists a visible, symbiotic relationship between hijras and kothis that is strengthened in the face of oppression, due to the lack of support systems for kothis in cities and towns. This has led kothis to depend upon hijra subcultures for both assistance and support emotional as well as otherwise. Hence due to the existence of such a relationship, there is a constant, perpetual exchange of languages, behaviour, mythologies between the hijra and the other homosexual subcultures. The early years, the young transgender confused; and the attitude of parents: Typically, when they are young and born into so called normal families, initially the parents humour the boy child if he behaves like a girl. But as he grows up, once he turns eleven or twelve, the parents start getting irritated at the childs behaviour. By the time he is in his teens, the father typically starts abusing and beating the child. Such an attitude displayed by the parent is more pronounced in villages and small towns since here awareness is less. The transgender child himself does not realize the reasons behind his behaviour; he cannot understand why he feels like a female inside, and gets more frustrated with the constant chastising by the parents. Soon he runs away, usually with the aid of a sympathetic elder in the village, who directs him to a hijra community in some other village. The hijra community and the first signs of awareness by the individual about his own biology: When he reaches there, the hijra community welcomes him and explains to him the reasons behind his so called queer behaviour. They give him the option of becoming a part of their community after the conversion process into a transsexual, castration followed by surgical regeneration of the vagina, or to remain as he is and explore the world by himself. In most instances, the individual at that moment decides to stay as he is, and goes into the village to seek employment opportunities. As most hijras testify, very soon the transgender individual is then raped, in most cases by policemen who arrest them on the supposed grounds that they are homosexual. It is tragic to know that the law enforcers are usually the ones who sexually violate these individuals first. After being abused multiple times, sexually as well as physically, the broken individual returns to the hijra community and asks for acceptance into their family. The castration process is never smooth in nature, usually carried out without the aid of modern anaesthesia or antibiotics. The operation costs for the surgical reconstruction of the female biological organs (such as the vagina) range from a minimum of seven thousand rupees (no anaesthesia) to a high of fifty thousand rupees. Since most of these individuals are poor, they settle for the operation that requires lesser costs. Depending upon the money, the expertise, and the success of the operation, the surgical reconstruction varies from being partially to fully complete. In many cases, if the surgery goes wrong, it might lead to blockage in the urinary passage and this could be terribly painful for the individual. The hijra family: A hijra family comprises daughters, sisters and mothers no males. After being rejected by their own biological families, the hijra family becomes the first and only source of emotional support. They are strong, close knit and provide safety and security for the abandoned people. However, due to poverty, discrimination, lack of education and skills, many of them have no means of earning money. So, they engage in commercial sex work and begging. Most hijras do not think twice about joining the sex trade, what with being abused physically and mentally multiple times. Transgender, Transsexual and Intersexual: At the most basic level, we take a look at the meanings of terms, transgender, transsexual, intersexual and androgyne. A Transgender is a person who is assigned a gender at birth based on his/her genitals, but feels that the assigned gender is a false representation of himself/ herself. Such a persons identity does not conform unambiguously to conventional notions of male or female gender roles, but combines or moves between these roles. Gender-queer, third gender are also names given to transgender individuals. According to The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health (ICD), Trans-sexuality is a need that certain individuals have to live and be acknowledged as a member of the opposite sex, usually accompanied by a sense of discomfort with ones ones current sex, and a desire to have hormonal and surgical treatment to make ones body conform as much as possible with ones preferred sex. On the removal of the sexual organs he/she was born with, a transgender becomes a transsexual. In simpler words, Transsexual men and women desire to establish themselves permanently as a member of the gender with which they identify, often using medical help for the same. One out of every two thousand births is an intersex child, and usually the birth leaves the parents of the child frustrated, confused and depressed. It also leaves them with a dilemma as to which gender the child belongs. Intersexed individuals do not have all the regular combinations of physical features; they have some chromosomal, genital anomalies. In simpler terms, such individuals may have biological characteristics of both males and females, i.e, these individuals have some parts of males and some of females. In some cases, an intersex person might look unambiguous sexually, but internally the sex anatomy is mixed, i.e he may have AIS complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and therefore, even though he has a Y chromosome and testes, the individual is otherwise completely female on the outside. Thus the fundamental difference between an intersex individual and a transgender is that unlike an intersex individual, a transgendered person is born with the conventional male or fe male anatomy. All the same, unlike other normal humans, he feels himself/herself to be a gender different from the one he/she born as. Discrimination against hijras: Education, health, employment The highly populated country that India is, with several different castes, religions, languages, the hijra community becomes an almost invisible minority. Biases against hijras are prevalent in our society in all walks of life. They are not granted education in schools, colleges or universities. Over ninety percent of the hijras have not even completed their secondary education. Hence, they do not get jobs, and in the rare occurrence that they do get employed, the salaries they receive are minimal. Due to the harsh economic conditions, they resort to sex work and begging. Hygienic activities are not practiced by those who are in the flesh trade. Even though the usage of condoms is insisted by them to protect themselves as well as their clients from HIV/STD, the people involved in this trade are still prone to getting other diseases like skin diseases due to lack of hygienic and safe practices. Even in hospitals and clinics, many transgender and transsexual people are discriminated ag ainst, and not given the respect or dignity that every human being deserves. Most of the transgender and transsexual people live in slums. Even if they have the monetary power to rent a house, due to the misconceptions about their lifestyle, most people refuse to give them a house on rent. Contempt, hatred and fear form a major part of the general impression about this unfortunate third gender. Even in public places like bus stations, railways stations, theatres, temples, offices, malls, even in public toilets, hijras are abused. A LOOK THROUGH HISTORY: Most hijras believe their origins to date back to the period of the Mahabharata. In it, Arjuna has to hide himself for a year. He decides to dress up as a woman as this is completely opposite to his till then great warrior status. During this period when he is a drag, he is a dancer in the kings court, and also a wedding singer. Then later, during the Kaurava Pandava war, the pandavas want to make a human sacrifice, believing that it would ensure victory in the war. No one is ready to volunteer, till finally, Aravan, the son of Arjun comes forward and offers himself for sacrifice. He has only one condition, that, he should enjoy one night of marital bliss before the sacrifice. This proves to be a difficult situation since no king is willing to marry his daughter to Aravan, knowing fully well that she would be widowed the next day. Finally, Lord Krishna takes a female form and spends one night of marital bliss with Aravan. Aravan is duly sacrificed the next day. The story has become more and more popular through the ages and now, every year, in the village of Koovagam in Villupuram district in Tamil Nadu, there is a temple festival and thousands of hijras travel through the breadth of the country to attend it. Aravan is the temples main deity and thousands of hijras pay homage, or in a mock ceremony get marri ed to his idol, and in the process become Aravanis. One night before the festival ends, the hijras enjoy a night of marital bliss with their lovers and the next day, a massive effigy of Aravan is taken through the streets of Koovagam and then the body is set to flames. There is a passage in Zia Jaffreys book, The Invisibles: a tale of eunuchs in India, that talks about the Ramayana. According to legend, when Rama went to the forest, many people followed him. Rama then asks all the men and women to go back. The hijras, being neither men nor women stay put and wait for Rama to return for fourteen years. On Ramas return, he is touched by their devotion and blesses them for their loyalty by sanctioning them the power to grant blessings on auspicious occasions like childbirth, marriage, and other functions hence the custom of badhai, in which hijras sing, dance and confer blessings. The hijras also worship Bahuchara mata. As legend goes, a woman, Bahuchara was travelling through a forest in Gujarat. She is accosted by some dacoits who threaten to rape her. She cuts off her breast and offers it to them, in exchange asking them not to touch her. She then dies and becomes an earth goddess. During the conversion process, i.e, the castration process, a hijra midwife cuts a coconut to see if the process should continue. If Bahuchara mata agrees, the coconut will slice into two clean halves. The hijra who is undergoing the castration process, mutters mata mata mata until the process is complete. As legend goes, Bahuchara mata appears in front of impotent men and orders them to cut off their genitals and become her slaves. If they do not agree, they would become impotent for the next seven generations. According to another popular legend, a king in Gujarat fell madly in love with Bahucharimatha, a beautiful goddess who rode a peacock. The king wanted to marry her, but she was not ready to have a sexual relationship. When he continued to persist in his endeavours, she relented but told him to first have a bath in a pond. On coming out of the pond, he was aghast to discover that he was emasculated, and would not be able to consummate his union with the goddess. The goddess pacified him by saying that he would soon find a community of people who would voluntarily castrate themselves in his honour. Around the world Eunuchs were a part of the Egyptian court, during the time when the Assyrian empire was ruling the country. In Rome, Emperor Constantine had a number of eunuchs tending to him for haircuts, baths, dressing and other functions. In the Byzantine royal court too, there were a number of eunuchs employed to handle domestic and administrative work. The Ottoman Empire had two categories of eunuchs taking care of the harem. The black eunuchs served the officers with maids of lower ranks, whereas the white eunuchs (those brought from the Balkan states) served those who were recruited in the Palace school. In India, eunuchs were employed by kings to take care of the ladies palaces, serve as guards and messengers for the royal ladies. LITERATURE REVIEW After getting a general understanding of the hijras, the categories, their lives, their history, I would now proceed to examine the literature that has been devoted to them. The Invisibles: A tale of Eunuchs in India is a bold, beautifully written, thought provoking book about the hijras of India by Zia Jaffrey. In the book, Anita, a hermaphrodite is handed over to the hijra community by her parents when she is just four years old because they cannot accept the fact that they do not have a normal child and are crushed by what they see. Another character, Kamal, born as a male, believes herself to be a female and castrates herself, while a third character Jagoman is kidnapped in Delhi, drugged and then castrated against his will. In the book, Jaffrey takes us on a journey throughout the country to find out who the hijras really are, why the subject has not been researched on much and why is it taboo, and why their history was never recorded. The book gives a detailed description of the lives, practices, culture and history of this unfortunate gender; raises pertinent questions about societys attitude and in many ways illuminates not just the grim world of the eunuchs but also that of India, itself. Neither Man, nor Woman: The hijras of India is an astounding piece of writing by Serena Nanda. Initially, it aims at correcting the common misconception that all hijras are men who undergo a ritual castration, thereby removing their genitals and becoming hijras. The book informs us that the hijras might have come from various sexual ambiguous backgrounds some may have been born as intersex, while others would have been born as male or female but failed to develop at puberty, or males who continued living as hijras without ever getting castrated. Nanda goes on to make comparisons of Indian hijras with other alternative gender roles belonging to other cultures, such as the transsexuals living in many Western societies and also with the Berdache of native North America. What is intriguing but all the same extremely interesting to note is that although most societies, especially the Asian, accept the ambiguity of gender by creating a third gender role, Western society seems extremely ad amant on the theory that a person can be either male or female only. In fact, even the homosexuals and transsexuals in these societies are considered to be a member of either of the two above genders. Transgender Rights, as the title suggests, is a book on the transgender rights movement that started in the United States of America thirty years back and is still going strong. The book assesses the victories and failures of the movement, the future challenges as well as opportunities. The movement fought for the rights of transgenders and transsexuals. The book is, in essence, a collection of articles that covered the rights movement, offering new perspectives and it examines important topics like employment opportunities, public health, economics, and grassroots organizing. This path breaking book is an essential resource in the fight for the freedom and equality of those who cross gender boundaries Changing Sex and Bending Gender, edited by Alison Shaw and Shirley Ardener is a compilation of nine essays about the cultural and historical construction and deconstruction of sex and gender. The initial chapters speak about the definitions of sex and gender; and that even though sex is based on biological characteristics and gender on social classifications, the definitions do not stand fixed across cultures. The next two chapters discuss the cultural pressures in the sex classification when a child is born. With 1.6 percent of children all over the world being born with ambiguous genitalia, the book offers several examples of the response to this, across cultures. As expected, the reactions do not vary much across cultures. The final three chapters deal with the lay mans interpretations and misconceptions about other alternative genders. The objective of the book is to bring out the fact that sex and gender are not fixed concepts and what happens when individuals push these two con cepts beyond the point that society has defined as permissible. The book is an excellent read, especially for people who want to pursue anthropology or gender studies. The Female Eunuch by Germaine Greer is one of the most popular and widely read books on feminism. Published in 1970, it became an international bestseller and was translated in over ten languages. It is a passionate, almost furious, hard hitting book on the present standing of women as compared to men, in the world. The book, at that time, served as a wakeup call to all women. It contends that sexual freedom is the key to womens liberation. It compares the psychological differences resulting from years of social conditioning, with the biological differences that are present between men and women. A section has been attributed to society, of its origins, its development over the years and where it currently stands. Through this book, Greer exposes the nature of inequalities that exist when it comes to gender rights and issues, and suggests strategies that could help improve the situation, if anyone chose to do so. The Autobiography of a Sex Worker by Nalini Jameela is an extremely personal, honest account of the life of Nalini. The book gives deep insights about the life of sex workers, and the circumstances in which they make their choices. Brought up in an Ezhava family, in her early years, Nalini works in the clay mines. Through the course of the book, we notice the slow yet gradual changes in society. Being extremely poor, and having children to support, she decides to resort to commercial sex work to earn money. The story goes back to the dark days of Emergency, when the police used to routinely arrest and torture innocent people, most of them who were poor and whose voices could not be heard. She recounts her interactions with the police in a chillingly, honest manner. Over the years, with the advent of organizations that worked for social rights, gender rights etc, the situation improved even though there were still innocent people who were jailed. The account is neither cynical, nor do es it have any traces of self pity. Nalini understood that to take care of her children, she would need to sell her body. The love that she displays for her daughter is heart warming. The book is an important read, one that helps us to understand that society can be exploitive, unforgiving and it has multiple layers, many of which are hidden to the naked, believing eye. KNOWLEDGE GAP: At the most basic level, there exists a lack of knowledge amongst the lay man about hijras. The first step, therefore, should be to create basic awareness in the minds of people, to sensitize them, to reach a stage where hijras can also expect a life of dignity. There are too many misconceptions and stereotypes related to hijras. This has led to a lot of social stigma being attached to this gender. Lack of opportunities, be it education, employment, health. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: The objective of my research methodology would be to illustrate the social marginalization of eunuchs by pointing out, statistically and otherwise, their absence in social, legal and political organizations. This will be done through, Analysis of secondary data A review of works on the subject by authors, academic as well as non academic literature, news reports, blogs and websites. Primary Research Taking interviews of hijras, first-hand accounts to verify conclusions derived from the secondary data. Also, conducting interviews of individuals working in social organizations, devoted to improving the conditions of hijras. Empirical Observations EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION: My thesis does not claim to have a tangible and substantial measurable contribution but adds to the domains of human sensitivity, sensibility and conscientization. A postmodern condition, such as the one we claim to have arrived at, cannot be complete unless all its participants have equal access to what constitutes a minimum life of dignity However, the objective of my research, studies and thesis, does comprise suggesting measures that, if implemented, would ensure that the hijras can enjoy a life with certain rights that every human being deserves. These would include sustainable and feasible proposals for employment, education and healthcare opportunities. THE CONTEXT OF MARGINALIZATION: Indian society is deeply divided along the lines of gender, caste, religion, class, language, education, all of which intersect with sexuality to create deeper divides and oppressions. While hijras are despised and treated with contempt in most societies, they are supposed to have a sanctioned place in Hindu society (especially in weddings, births and festivals) as a recognized third gender, accommodating gender variation, ambiguity and contradictions. There is an arguement that says that unlike other sexual minorities such as bisexuals, gays and lesbians all that largely remain closeted, the hijras overall are a visible force , and part of an organized community. Despite this supposedly elevated status amongst the sexual minorities, reality is starkly harsh. All over the country, in any part where the Hijras reside, their lives are physically, mentally and emotionally scarred by experiences of shame, dishonour and gruesome violence. In the contemporary scenario, its not just the ambiguous gender but also the class dimension of the hijra and kothi community that has a severe impact on issues which the upper class so conveniently take for granted, such as access to education, employment etc. The violence that they suffer on a daily basis is something that no other community in this country faces. Imagine yourself in a situation where practically the entire world looks down upon you, a mere look at you is met with contempt, imagine a world where you do not even enjoy basic privileges like education, a job, a life. Imagine a world where not even your parents and siblings can accept you for who you are and choose to hate you for no apparent fault of yours. Imagine being beaten up every day by random men. Imagine being penetrated physically, mentally every day by random men. Imagine crying every day. Welcome to the world of Hijras. In most of South India, the hijras do not even have the cultural role that their counterparts have in the northern parts of the country. Most employers are not ready to hire them for available jobs. Often, they resort to hiding their gender identity but if found out, in most cases, they are thrown out from their positions. Therefore sex work becomes, in most cases, the only form of employment. They usually run bath houses, also known as Hamams. The Hamams are generally visited by working class men and the police. Of course, most of these men are married. It is an extremely dangerous profession, as they are often subjected to the sadistic whims, fancies and atrocities of cruel customers. Narrated below are the testimonies given by some of the hijras I had the privilege of meeting and speaking to. As is clear, kothis and hijras take up sex work for a variety of reasons. One reason involves the pragmatic consideration of supporting the family. There is also the pride which comes from being able to support the family. Another reason has to do with the self-acceptance of being a hijra and with the related discovery of a certain kind of freedom that living in the hijra community can provide. Many hijras and kothis fiercely assert that there is nothing disreputable about being a sex worker and it is as legitimate a piece of work as any other. BIBLIOGRAPHY Journals Publications Peoples Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka(2000).Human rights violations against sexuality minorities in India report (first edition).PUCL KARNATAKA. Peoples Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka(2007).Human rights violations against sexuality minorities in India report (second edition).PUCL KARNATAKA. Bodies That Dont Matter: The Discursive

Summary On puritan Dilemma :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Reformation was when the Protestants broke away from the Pope. Martin Luther King, the leader, led the break with Rome. He translated the bible into German. The 95 Theses was basically a book of complaints. One of the theses was the practice of selling indulgences, which was distributed all over Europe. The practice of selling indulgences was a forgiven pass for not going to confession.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Calvinism was the theological tenets of John Calvin. One teaching of his was predestination. Another was Congregationalism where the church made the rules, and didn’t have to report to the Pope. The Universal Priesthood of Believers was that all believers were priests. The Eucharist denied Christ’s presence. In the communion the priest stood over bread and wine, which symbolized the body and blood. Also, the earthly must be sanctified by the heavenly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Henry VIII was the king of England. He had marital problems where he beheaded most of his wives. He wanted a son to carry down the reign, but his first wife had a girl. He went to the Pope to get his marriage annuled, but the Pope said he could not annul it. So, he beheaded his wife. He established his own church, dismissed the Pope, and made himself the head of all churches. Basically, Henry VIII broke with Rome, setup as head of the church, and confiscated all the church properties.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Puritanism beliefs and practices consisted of predestination, total depravity, conversion experience, work ethic, old testament covenant, and the purification of the church. Predestination was the belief if god imposed a will, then your life is predestined. Total depravity was where man is utterly sinful and cannot be gone. The conversion experience was believed that life had to be lived for god only. The Puritans job was to purify everything. They could enjoy anything only if it was for god. The work ethic belief was that you should use time, talents, and abilities for God. They wanted to purify the church with Catholic practices and society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  John Winthrop had many jobs. First, he was the Lord of the Groton Manor. He made money by renting land at a fixed rate. Second, he was an attorney in his majesty’s court of ward’s. The father of a household would give his land to his eldest son. If his son was not old enough to own the land the land would go to the king.

The Wife of Bath’s Tale

At the climax of The Wife of Bath's Tale, the sixth tale in Chaucer's work, an old woman exclaims â€Å"Now lift the curtain, see just how it is.† It is this call to action which seems to govern The Canterbury Tales as a whole. The curtains of pretense hide truths If all the world is a stage, then the performances we give daily are not truly indicative of our innermost thoughts and sentiments. Behind the stage curtain lay the forces which govern our actions. Social position and past experiences play no small role in how we view the world. The narrative frame Chaucer's work may revolve around the pilgrimage, an essentially religious experience, but it also presents this group of pilgrims/revelers as a microcosm for society. The archetypes explored and social commentary offered by the author point to an explorationWe are painted a portrait of contemporary customs and perspectives. An undeniable theme in Chaucer's Tale is the disparity between the ideals of chivalry and the less savory reality of the common people. The holy journey our characters are undertaking is at times sullied by raucousness It is not difficult here to discern who the commoners are from of those with world stature. Whatever camaraderie develops between the characters, social station remains a prominent factor throughout the narrative. While open conflict is rare, we see moments of contempt which offer glimpses into individual prejudices. Behind the drapery of manners that hides a man's true feelings, there is resentment and all the true dispositions which remain unspoken. It is what lies behind this veneer that is the subject of this paper. Within the interactions of the speakers as well as the tales themselves there can be seen a clashing of worldviews and personalities. Characters— at least the more profane ones— have no problem arguing with and badmouthing each other. The warm mood can be interrupted at times by personal attacks. The nature of these conflicts and Chaucer's deeper purpose will be examined here, in addition to whether the work should be considered a social commentary or a virtuous Christian tale.

Donatello Essays - Donatello, The Feast Of Herod, David, Free Essays

Donatello Essays - Donatello, The Feast Of Herod, David, Free Essays Donatello Michelle Hoell Professor Kranz Humanities 2 16 Nov. 2001 Donatello is known as the most important sculptor of the Early Renaissance. The author, John Pope-Hennessy noted him as one of the greatest artists who ever lived (Pope-Hennessy p.11). Donatello was a modest person who was very dedicated to his works. Because of his great dedication, he was able to create so much art in so many different varieties (Poeschke p.5). Donatellos origins, his accomplishments, and his impact are important aspects to appreciate the sculptor, Donatello. Donatello was born on 1386 in Florence, Italy by the name Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi. (library p.1). His father, Niccolo di Betto Bardi, was a wool comber. It is thought that he learned his career from one of the stone sculptors for the Cathedral of Florence around 1400 (britannica p.3). He assisted Filippo Brunelleschi, with whom he may have visited Rome and studied monuments of antiquity there (Blood p.1). Donatello started sculpting at the age of twenty. Donatello created masterpieces with stone, clay, bronze, or gold (Poeschke p.376). He is said to have worked in Lorenzo Ghiberti's shop and also had a shop of his own in Florence. Later in life he studied Roman Ruins and became a humanist. Donatello died on December 13, 1466 at the age of eighty. He never married and had no children (Blood p.1). Donatellos works can be separated into three periods. The first period is comprised of works done before the year 1425. During the first period, Donatello was greatly influenced by the Gothic style, yet classical and realistic influences were also Hoell 2 present. During this time Donatello identified himself as a realist. Most of his weeks of this period were spent in Florence (Blood p.2). One of the works completed during the first period is the marble David was one of Donatellos earliest works, which was completed around 1412 (britannica p.2). On February 20, 1408, Donatello was commissioned to make one of the buttresses, which were going to be placed on the choir of the Duomo in Florence. A total of twelve buttresses were supposed to be made by several different sculptors but the task was never completed. When Donatello finally completed his work, it was criticized of being too small to be placed in its location, which was eighteen meters high. The David ended up in the Duomo workshops for a few years. Then, in July 1416, it was moved to the Palazzo Vecchio. Donatello was then paid five extra florins to make some alterations to the statue. This may be when the very intricate details were added to Goliaths face and hair. He may have also added details to the clothing, such as seams, folds and fringes, during this time. Because of this, Donatello was noted of putting much more importance into the details of the sculpture more than any sculptor of this time puts (Poeschke p.27, 377). A while later the Prophet David was given a place of honor in the city hall to represent political freedom. Donatellos David was chosen for this place. Ghilberti, the leader in International Gothic Style, influenced this sculpture. International Gothic Style consisted of soft curves, which the Dav id processed. The construction of the drapery also had a Gothic look. This work was made for the Cathedral but was later moved to Palazzo Vecchio in 1416. There, the David symbolized civic patriotism. It was later shadowed Hoell 3 by the huge Michelangelo version of David (britannica p.2). The David can be seen on page nine and is image one. Another work done during the first period is St. George. It was one of Donatellos most powerful works. It had demonstrated personality and confidence, which has not been seen since the classical antiquity (britannica p.2). St. George is image four on page ten. There appears to be holes made into the marble. These holes are thought to have held a wreath or bronze helmet on the head. The right hand was carved to hold a sword of lance made of bronze. The statue was completed on 1415 and the tabernacle niche in which is placed was completed around 1417 (Pope-Hennessy p.63, 64). It is unsure if Donatello had anything to do with designing the tabernacle in

Selling Halloween Making Money with Spooky Stories

Selling Halloween Making Money with Spooky Stories Halloween in January? Yep. When you write seasonal articles you have to think six to eight months in advance. While you cozy up to a fire, staving off the chill from snow and ice outside, start making notes about seasons months from now . . . like Halloween! Halloween is my favorite holiday when else do you get to enjoy dressing up, eating candy, scaring your friends, and having spooky good fun? For the writer, Halloween is also a great holiday to make a few extra dollars as many magazines are looking for Halloween-themed articles and features. As well as running Halloween features alongside regular content, many magazines like Better Homes and Gardens release a special Halloween issue, and they need articles to fill these pages. Halloween features dont even have to be spooky or scary. Many magazines expand on Halloweens seasonality Like any seasonal feature, Halloween stories need to be pitched several months in advance, so get your spooky cap on and start submitting for next years Halloween features. Halloween Travel Have you ever explored an historic building that you knew was haunted, or enjoyed a city ghost tour hosted Missouri Lifemissourilife.com/contributor-guidelines Horizons Magazine (Alaska Airlines)alaskaairlinesmagazine.com/horizonedition/guidelines/contributor/ Craft Projects Halloween is a great time for kids and adults alike to get creative with costumes and decorative projects. If youve got a crafty idea for a spooky costume, a cute Halloween accessory, or a simple project kids can create themselves, send a tutorial in to a craft magazine. Kids and parenting magazines also often accept craft tutorials. Family Fun Magazinehttp://familyfun.go.com/magazine/contact-us-819817/ Bead Button Magazinehttp://bnb.jewelrymakingmagazines.com/en/Magazine/Submission%20Guidelines/2001/07/BeadandButton%20Submission%20Guidelines.aspx Spooky Food With harvest season in full-swing, food is definitely on our minds over Halloween. What about a spread of pumpkin-themed dishes for the family? Or recipes for healthy Halloween treats the kids will love? Food magazines love receiving innovative twists on seasonal favorites. Country Womancountrywomanmagazine.com/contributor-guidelines/ Delicious Livinghttp://newhope360.com/contact-delicious-living  Horrible Fiction If you write fiction and are thinking of penning a classic Halloween horror tale, there are plenty of magazines waiting to receive your spooky stories. Tor.com fiction submissionstor.com/page/submissions-guidelines Apex Magazinehttp://apex-magazine.com/submission-guidelines/  Lifestyle Features Halloween definitely isnt just for kids. Adults love to dress in costume and enjoy Halloween parties and dates. Perhaps you could write a guide to grown-up Halloween parties, or a recipe for pumpkin-cocktails for a lifestyle magazine. Do you know a couple that got married on Halloween? Maybe you could write about their unusual wedding for a bridal magazine? Bust Magazinebust.com/info/submit-to-bust.html Bride and Groom Magazine (Various States)phoenixbrideandgroom.com/aboutus_writers.php Parenting Tips Between helping with costumes, keeping kids safe and helping them make healthy choices, Trick-or-Treat season can be a nightmare for parents. If youve got some tips on making trick-or-treating safer, healthier and more fun for children, parenting magazines would love to know how. Treasure Valley Family Magazinetreasurevalleyfamily.com/component/content/article/13-footer/46-editorial.html Parents Magazineparents.com/parents/file.jsp?item=/help/writers_guidelines Halloween is a great jumping-off point for a whole range of different article pitches. Magazines are always looking for content on this popular holiday, and submitting new ideas around old topics will definitely get your query a second look. Good luck, and happy haunting!

Amending the U.S. Constitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Composing successful teams Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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